The Formation Process of the Modern Western Stereotype of Deforestation in Northern China
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摘要: 通过对近代众多来华西方人士撰写的游记、考察报告等原始外文文献的翻检,对美国林学会、工程学会等学术共同体的多种刊物以及中西英文报刊资料的系统整理,从近代西方人关注中国森林的背景、收集信息的主体人群、传播信息的主要媒介、传播过程、质疑与争论等五个方面,对近代以来,欧洲、美国从传教士、科学家、工程师到政府等社会各个层面对中国北方形成毁林刻板印象的历史过程进行了深入研究。文章认为,美国学者对中美地理环境高度相似性的充分认识是近代美国比欧洲更加持续关注中国森林的背景;而当时美国面临与中国类似的森林危机,亟须通过反面教材的宣传促使全社会吸取教训、树立保护森林等资源的思想则是美国关注中国森林的动力。对中国北方毁林刻板印象的形成既是美国通过反复宣传中国毁林现象并以此为鉴,逐步建立起美国森林保护体系、完善林业法律与行政管理等政府行为的过程,也是林学知识在中美间循环流动的过程。Abstract: Through reviewing the original foreign literatures such as travel writing and investigation reports written by many westerners who came to China, and systematically sorting out various publications of academic communities such as the American Forestry Society and the Engineering Society, as well as the Chinese and western English newspapers and periodicals, this paper focuses on the background of China’s forests, the main group of people collecting information, and the communication letters from the modern westerners. From five aspects, namely, the main media, the process of dissemination, doubts and disputes, this paper carries out a thorough study of the historical process of forming a stereotype of deforestation in northern China in Europe and the United States from the viewpoints of missionaries, scientists, engineers and the government. The article holds that the American scholars’ full understanding of the high similarity of geographical environment between China and the United States is the background that the United States pays more attention to China’s forests than Europe in modern times. At that time, the United States was facing a similar forest crisis as China, and urgently needed to promote the whole society to set up the idea of learning lessons and protecting forests and other resources through propaganda of negative textbooks. It is the driving force for the United States to focus on China’s forests. The formation of stereotype of deforestation in northern China is not only the process of establishing the forest protection system, perfecting forestry laws and administration in the United States, but also the process of circulation of forestry knowledge between China and the United States by repeatedly publicizing the phenomenon of deforestation in China and drawing lessons from it.
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Keywords:
- early modern times /
- Northern China /
- deforestation /
- stereotype /
- Occident
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韩安(1883—1961)作为中国近现代林业事业的奠基人之一,在中国林业发展史上是一位不容忽视的人物−中国第一位林学硕士留学生,中国第一位林学家出身的政府官员,最早在国立北京农业专门学校(1923年更名为国立北京农业大学,即现今中国农业大学的前身)担任林学科教务主任、森林系主任的学者之一。韩安编译的《世界各国国有森林大势》一文最早向国人介绍了各国林业概况,并在国内兴办铁路沿线育苗造林,开中国营造护路林之先河。韩安在担任农林部中央林业实验所(下文简称中林所)所长后,更是进一步推动了中国林业事业的发展。
一. 韩安简介
韩安,男,字竹坪,1883年生于安徽省巢县西秦村一个农民家庭[1-2]①,9岁时随父母移居芜湖,在福音教会小学免费走读,后就读于汇文书院[1-2]②,期间勤奋刻苦,成绩优异,毕业后留校任教。1907年应试获榜首,公费前往美国康奈尔大学文理学院学习,1909年毕业获理学学士学位,同年入密歇根大学农林系攻读林学硕士。1911年毕业时恰逢国内政局动荡不定,黄花岗起义、武昌起义等革命活动先后爆发,他自忖农林关系密切,于是继续转往美国威斯康星大学学习农科1年,学习美国先进的农业科学技术。民国元年(1912年)夏回到北京,任农林部山林司佥事,投身于近代林业建设。
韩安先后担任吉林省林业局主任、东三省林务局主任、京汉铁路局造林事务所所长等职,保护了东北天然林资源,首创中国铁路沿线育苗造林和兵工造林。1924年后,历任察哈尔特别区实业厅厅长、绥远特别区实业厅厅长兼垦务总办、安徽省政府委员兼省会安庆市市长及教育厅厅长、安徽大学农学院筹备主任等职。1929年后,历任山东省青岛特别市政府参事兼教育局局长、豫鄂皖边区绥靖督办公署参议兼宣传处处长、平汉铁路局林务处顾问兼林场主任、陕西省林务局副局长等职。1938年以后历任四川省建设厅生产计划委员会农业组主任委员、农林部中林所所长、农林部顾问、中国红十字会南京分会理事等职。1950年任西北军政委员会工程师,1953年随着西北军政委员会的撤销,韩安退职,从事翻译工作,翻译了《物种起源》《达尔文传略》《遗传学与物种起源》等著作。1956年迁居青岛,被增选为中国人民政治协商会议第一届山东省委员会委员,但因病未能参与相关政治活动,1959年移居北京修养,于1961年病逝。
在林业教育方面,1922年韩安应国立北京农业专门学校校长金邦正之邀,任教务主任兼森林系主任,后国立北京农业专门学校改名为国立北京农业大学,韩安任教务主任、森林系主任,为中国近代林业教育的建设与发展做出了重要贡献;筹建中华林学会,团结国内农林界的人士进行学术交流,推进中外学者交流。
从事林业50余年,韩安始终秉承着“科学精神把事当事,民主精神把人当人”[3]的座右铭,致力于中国林业建设事业的发展,重视林业科研教育和森林资源调查,是我国近现代林业事业的奠基人之一。
二. 农林部中林所
近代以来战争不断,“不抗战无以自存,不生产无以抗战”[4],林业的军事价值和经济价值愈发凸显。国民政府在1939年于重庆召开第一次全国生产会议,制定战时生产与经济发展原则[5-6],宣布林业建设为经济建设主体之一,抗战时期对木材的需求尤为紧迫。1940年3月行政院国务会议决定设立农林部,同年5月11日国民政府公布施行《农林部组织法》[7],农林部负责管理全国农林行政事务,同年7月农林部正式成立,以供战时军需。后随着林业生产与战时军需的联系日渐紧密,国人对原本仅配属于农林部中央农业实验所体系下的森林试验系[5-6]愈加关注,于是政府在农林行政会议上通过《设立中央林业实验所》一案,比照西方各国,独立设立林业研究机构[8]。1941年,行政院第512次会议通过《中央林业实验所计划概算与组织章程草案》③,随即任命韩安担任所长,同年7月中林所正式成立。
关于中林所所长人选,国立西北农学院森林学会在《设立中央林业实验所》这一议案刚通过之时,推荐时任国立中央大学森林系教授梁希先生担任所长一职④,但由于冯玉祥将军对韩安的林学才能十分欣赏,于是和时任农林部常务次长的钱天鹤一起举荐韩安出任所长职务,后农林部任命韩安担任所长⑤。
三. 韩安带领下的中林所发展
中林所是抗战时期为了军需而建立的林业研究机构,它不仅解决了一部分军民衣食问题,还为林产利用、林业建设的发展奠定了基础。韩安担任所长期间,中林所的发展主要分为以下两个阶段。
一 1941—1945年创建阶段(重庆)
中林所初创之日,“适值抗战极艰苦之时,政府当局所以不顾一切之艰难依然成立此一研究试验机构者,固由于主政者之高瞻远瞩,亦林业本身应时代殷切之需要有以促其成”[9]。韩安最初奉令筹办中林所时,“开办费不及十万元,所有房屋人才设备,均无基础”[10],在寻找办公房屋时恰逢重庆市区遭受敌机轰炸,曾感慨“房屋之寻觅,殊非易易”[9],只能临时在瓷器口教育学院借教室办公。后来购得歌乐山保育路上的一栋房屋,中林所正式成立。所内分设造林研究、林产利用、调查推广3组,分别由副所长邓淑群、代理技正梁希以及所长韩安兼任⑥,掌技术工作;设文书、出纳、庶务3课,掌行政事务;另设会计、人事两室,分办会计及人事事宜。
1 提请修改相关规章制度
没有规矩不成方圆,在中林所的组织规程设立之初,农林部便以《农林部中央林业实验所组织规程草案》为蓝本进行规划[5-6],多次修订,制定了《中央林业实验所三十一年至三十三年计划大纲》。但经过一段时期的实际应用,所长韩安便发现不妥−中林所内所员们的人事处理与拟定章程不符。为了提高工作效率,韩安两次递函农林部,后“援引农林部之训令,以为立论基础;双方经多次公文往返,逐条交涉讨论,方始定案”[5-6]。
1945年3月2日,农林部公布《农林部中央林业实验所组织条例》[11],保证了中林所运行的基础,明确了中林所的执掌权限,所内人员和预算都较之前有所增加。自该条例公布后,中林所的业务机构拟扩大为10组:造林研究、水土保持、林产制造、木材工艺、森林副产、林业经济、林业推广、森林保护、森林经理、森林工程,分掌技术研究事项,其中后3组因经费设备所限,最终未成立。依照该条例第2条,全所业务范围有以下6点:①关于全国国防林、经济林、保安林、风景林及主副林产之研究试验及改进事项;②关于林业研究所得之技术及优良种苗之推广事项;③关于林业经济之调查研究事项;④关于森林之主副产物、分级标准与运销制度之研究事项;⑤关于森林保护及水土保持之研究设计事项;⑥关于林业改进技术人员之训练[12]。规章制度的确立使得中林所的初期发展有了良好的基础。
2 设立组织机构
造林研究组初设于甘肃岷县,1942年秋从甘肃移至重庆续办,主要从事检定树木种子、森林害虫等树木生长的研究。林产利用组(1945年后分为林产制造和木材工艺两组)成立之初因缺乏实验仪器与参考书籍,为便于工作暂设于沙坪坝,同梁希创建的国立中央大学森林化学室合作试验;1943年除一部分合作仍继续进行外,还在所内进行了有关木材及林产品等林产试验。林业调查推广组(1945年后分为林业经济和林业推广两组)一方面负责林业调查,采用直接调查、委托调查、合作调查3种方法,以特用经济林产为主要内容,调查川湘黔渝边区的林业,并计划全国的林业普查,以供中央造纸厂参考,另一方面负责林业推广,计划于1942年培育经济林苗171 030株,1943年春季推广80 880株。
1943年9月创立林业资料室,用来“各种林业图表之绘制;国内林业资料之搜集,在交通不便时此项工作,以原有之资料译述为主;林业资料之交换;各种林业统计等;森林资源资料之搜集”[9],主要加强各项研究资料的搜集。1944年造林实验室、森林保护室、化学实验室、林产制造室、林业资料室等30余间实验室均设立完成。同期与南京钟南中学办理合作学校示范林;推广及实验两苗圃总面积约9.5 hm2,均全部播种;开发利用山林地面积30.8 hm2;筹设林产制造实验工厂;另有中央训练团建设工作,种植各种树木花果五千余株及营造陪都纪念林两千余株。1945年5月4日,行政院同意中林所负责接管办理农林部垦务总局附属四川金佛山垦殖实验区管理处⑦,并更名为农林部中央林业实验所常山种植试验场,用以繁殖药用植物常山。
3 招揽人才
中林所在成立之初仅有12人,人力严重不足,一人身兼多职的情况久未改善。韩安除了身体力行之外,时刻不忘招揽人才,呼吁贤达人士关注林业,为中国林业建设建言献策。韩安在相关期刊上介绍中林所发展的概况时经常积极号召各界人士共促其发展,如在《农林部中央林业实验所概况》中写道“凡我林业界同志,关怀本所者,尚祈有以教之,曷胜盼幸!”[10]《二年来之中央林业实验所工作概况》中提到:“以就教于高明。”[13]《本所四年来之回顾》中:“希国内贤达,有以教之,则幸甚焉!”[9]1943年中林所成立两周年之际,李寅恭、梁希等人前往重庆歌乐山祝贺。直至1945年所内共有人员75人,在中林所迁离重庆时,“韩安题写‘中林峰’摩崖石刻,意欲大家努力攀登中华林业科技之高峰”[2],激励学界人士为中国林业建设不懈奋斗。
4 发行《林讯》
林业期刊不仅给广大的林业人士提供了相互交流探讨的平台,也让国民更加了解全世界的林业发展,了解林业与国民经济的关系,唤起人们对林业的兴趣。中林所除发行不定期之研究专刊、推广刊外,1944年7月开始定期双月出版《林讯》,发表“一切林业之论著、研究、报告、调查,及国内外林业新闻”[12]。第1期《林讯》中有关国内林业动态,主要刊载了有关农林部及中林所的相关研究活动概况,所员们将中林所的研究项目、计划大纲、人员近况等刊登在上。第2期及之后,范围逐渐扩大,不仅刊载有关全国各地的林业研究,还有对古人林业思想的讨论,如《柳宗元的植树方法》《孟轲的保林意见》《关于行道树的诗(左宗棠玉门关):[诗歌]》等。借由这个平台,国内学者们进行着有关林业多方面、深层次的交流。韩安也在期刊上介绍中林所的发展概况并激励业界人士为了林业建设而共同努力。1946年因战事甫毕,《林讯》随着中林所迁回南京而终止出版。
期刊的发行使林业知识得以推广普及,也使人们接触到了国外林业的发展,如《美国此次战争中对于木材几种新的利用》《苏联发明无节木材之培育新法》《加拿大之木材产业》等文章,使国人可以及时了解国外林业的动态。由于当时的留学风潮,中外学者交流频繁,《林讯》上刊登的韩安《美国水土保持之实施及在中国进行之方法》《本所朱副所长陪同美籍专家顾菊才(Gould,J.)赴乐考察》等多篇文章都表明了中林所在发展过程中始终保持着对外交流,推动了近代林业的发展。
二 1946—1949年发展阶段(南京)
抗战胜利后,中林所在国家林业建设中的贡献越来越大。1946年5月由重庆迁至南京,韩安继续担任所长,副所长由傅焕光担任,租借中山门外遗族女校[12]为临时所址。几经周折,由国父陵园管理委员会拨租太平门外陵西北区山地约66.7 hm2,以充本所永久所址,另指定自所址西至城根200多hm2山林作为本所试验地段[12],历经1年多的营建布置,完成大小房屋12幢,约200间,至此,中林所重建完成。
1 完善组织机构
在重建过程中,中林所的发展规模也得到进一步壮大。1947年4月,木材工艺组、林业经济组开始独立进行相关研究工作;同年7月成立水土保持组。1948年9月,森林副产组成立。部分造林研究与林产利用工作已获得成果,各项研究资料的搜集也得到了加强。此外林业研究的范围更加广泛,不再仅局限于林业的经济研究,开始注重保护和生态环境问题,林业在国家林业建设中发挥着越来越重要的作用。同时,中林所附属林场开始建立与发展,完善了组织机构的空间布局。
1)华南林业试验场[14]。为管理海南岛林业,积极利用岛上的丰饶物产,为研究热带林业奠定基础,在韩安锲而不舍的努力之下,中林所华南林业试验场最终得以成立[15]。后农林部决定将农林畜牧机构合并,中林所华南林业试验场改为海南岛农林试验场继续运行⑧,中林所的发展规模进一步得到扩展。
2)西南工作站[12]。中林所在返回南京后,以重庆歌乐山的旧址为基础成立西南工作站,有林地苗圃30多 hm2,负责西南各省经济林及保安林之栽植、西南各省森林主副产物之利用与改进、育苗造林之试验等。
3)华中林场[12]。中林所在迁到南京的同时,接收南京附近的汤山、东善桥、栖霞山、牛首山、龙王山及东流等林场,共有山地约767 hm2,苗圃及农地约123.3 hm2。主要工作为育苗、示范造林、推广,组织保林协会并推动人民造林。
4)所内直辖苗圃[12]。位于太平门外中林所范围内,共有林地及苗圃约66.7 hm2。其工作为育苗之试验、示范林之营造、水土保持之实验、培植标本园等。
5)华北林业试验场[12]。位于北平(今北京)西直门内,包括西山、黄村、山海关、铁匠营等施业区,石门苗圃等,合计林地苗圃900多hm2。主要工作有:华北主要经济林之营造与推广、沙地咸地及河滩育苗造林之研究、海岸防风林之营造实验、华北林产品利用之研究、华北林业经济之调查统计、水土保持及田间防风林之试验等。
6)嵩山示范林区[12]。1947年4月在河南登封设立嵩山示范林场,苗圃面积10 hm2,营林范围为嵩山太室、少室两主峰,研究工作大致与华北林场相似。
7)常山种植实验场[12]。1945年在四川设立的常山种植实验场有公私荒地16 666.7 hm2,经3年的发展,共种植常山2 603 000株。
2 培训汇集人才
对于所内人员,中林所不仅开展水土保持训练、指导林业实习、“招收各大学农学院森林系或农林职业学校毕业保送之学生来所实习”[12]等相关工作,还会派遣所内技术人员前往国外实习。如傅焕光、张楚宝、陈桂陛、杨敬睿4人通过留美实习考试,分别考察学习水土保持、森林学相关研究;贺近恪、李继书二人前往澳洲实习木材性质与木材制造[12],同国外学者交流学习。出国人员虽不多,但他们在我国林业建设方面都做出了巨大贡献。
此外还举办农林展览会,陈列许多图书及标本,唤起人们对林业的兴趣,使人们了解林业与国计民生之间的关系。
3 发行《林业通讯》
1947年10月,由左舜生题写刊名的《林业通讯》月刊发行,继承之前《林讯》的目标与职责,致力推广宣传林业相关知识。韩安在1947年第1期刊载的《林业之重要性》中写道:“国家土地所以宝贵者,以其能孕育万物维持国用与民生;土地所以能孕育万物者,以其地面薄层之表土粒细肥力足;偌此表面薄层肥细之土壤,任风雨之侵蚀,则宝贵之资源不断减少,生产亦因之降低。更有近者……欲使土壤不致流失,唯有造林植草耳。盖森林对固结土壤,防止径流,保护表土之功效最大也”[16],讲述了林业在国家建设发展中的重要地位。
4 推动与静生生物调查所的合作
抗日战争结束后,在经济低迷的大背景下,积极有效的合作是不可或缺的。中林所与静生生物调查所的合作虽最终未能圆满完成,但其过程仍对我国的植物学以及林业建设做出了极大的贡献。
静生生物调查所成立于1928年,致力于中国植物资源的调查与研究,其宗旨为“调查及研究全国动植物之分类,籍谋增进国民生物学知识,促进农、林、医、工各种实验生物学之应用”[17],由秉志担任所长,1932年胡先骕继任。静生生物调查所创办之初仅有9人,后发展到90余人,是当时全国最大的生物学研究机构,但在1941年底被日军篠田部队封闭并驱逐了所中员工[18],直至抗日战争胜利。1946年在胡先骕的积极倡导下,静生生物调查所得以在北平复原,但始终未能恢复到战前的元气,极度缺乏资金支持。
中林所在当时有调查中国森林植被资源的任务,但缺少人才与技术。两所的困境一直到1946年胡先骕在途经南京和傅焕光会晤时得到突破。胡先骕和傅焕光两人初步拟定共同编辑《中国森林树木图志》,后胡先骕到达北平后令唐进起草合作协议并致函韩安,极表合作之诚意。韩安在获悉情况后,积极支持两所的合作,在对协议的个别条款探讨修改后,与胡先骕于1947年正式签订合作协议。10个月后,由胡先骕编辑、冯澄如绘制的《中国森林树木图志》一册完成,并于1948年8月间印就。1949年中华人民共和国成立,万物更新,两所的合作宣告结束,剩余9册未能编辑出版。
韩安和胡先骕在签订协议时,同时商洽了另一项合作计划,即“两家共同出资1 000万元,各担其半,由静生所下属云南农林植物研究所和庐山森林植物园分别担任云南南部和江西北部的森林调查工作”[18]。在来往公函相商经费时,由于农林所俞德浚认为经费过少,要求增加预算,致使中林所资金难以下拨,而胡先骕眼看采集的大好时光流逝,十分着急,多次致函韩安,望此事早日办妥,最后向韩安发函:“江西、云南两省采集队均整装待发,而贵所采集费迄未拨下,视大好采集季节消失,至为可惜。吾兄果诚意合作者,望于得此函后,即日将采集费分别电汇庐园与滇所,至以为祷。”其实,在胡先骕发函之前,中林所已将款项汇出,只是远在北平的胡先骕尚不知悉。此亦录韩安之复函:“前遵稚嘱,于五月廿日将赣滇二处合作采集费各五百万分别汇出:一汇九江枯岭庐山植物园;一汇昆明云南农林植物研究所,此刻定克收到。本所具万分诚意与贵所合作,一切事宜自当遵约履行,祈勿疑念。”[19]面对胡先骕为了事业的发展,唯恐错过最佳时期而言语犀利,韩安虽较为生气对方的质疑,但冷静过后,用宽容的态度促成了两所继续友好合作。
四. 结 语
1948年末,南京国民政府机关纷纷南迁,韩安于1949年1月辞去中林所所长一职,被任命为农林部顾问。同年韩安举家迁往西安。1950年西北军政委员会农林部任命他为工程师,为西北林业献计献策。
无论是最初中林所选址的艰难、人员的不足、资金的短缺,还是发展过程中组织机构的设立、业务范围的扩大、造林研究项目的进行、林产利用的试验、林业资源调查推广等工作,这些在短短几年内都无法完全解决、完成,个中辛酸恐怕只有韩安才能体会。正如他在回顾中林所成立4年时写道:“吾人在此短短四年之中,兢兢战战,克勤克忠,以谋吾人事业之前进。”[10]韩安回忆中林所的文章中多次使用“兢兢战战”一词,可见他从事这项事业自始至终所抱有的认真谨慎的态度,如果没有韩安在困难时的永不言弃,在与他人合作时的谦虚包容,就很难有中林所如此大的发展,也不会有与静生生物调查所的合作。近代的林学家们大多有留学经历,他们吸取国外先进思想,结合中国实际国情,兢兢业业做研究,勤勤恳恳搞建设,循循善诱育人才,极大地促进了我国林业的发展,同国外的交流合作更是丰富了与林业相关的交叉学科,扩宽了林业的发展范围。正是由于包括韩安在内的这些林学家前辈们筚路蓝缕、手胼足胝的艰苦奋斗,以大局为重的格局,踏实严谨的工作,才为我国的林业建设打下了夯实的基础,并泽被后人。
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